Gambino Cleaning Products Salesman System Specification Essay

A new system of calculating and reporting on cleaning products salesmen is to be designed and implemented. Cleaning products salesmen commission is based on a set of data which is the monthly sales of cleaning products sold by the salesmen. Objectives The new system must: * Be automated as far as possible, needing no thorough knowledge of spreadsheets, databases or any other software in order to operate it. * Have fitted controls to ensure precision and completeness of data input. * Take into account commission payments from monthly sales. * Print commission reports for each of the salesmen, and a summary report showing total paid to each salesman and overall total. * Include an option to delete commission records previous to a given date so that the file does not increase for an indefinite period. The proposed new system can be shown in a level 0 data flow diagram as follows: A level 1 Data Flow Diagram of the proposed system is as follows: User functions 1. The Commissioning Salesman in the Sales Department will be responsible for entering all details of new cleaning products salesman and new products. 2. An Accounts clerk will have special responsibility for the commission system. 3. The Accounts clerk will enter each month the sales of each product, giving quantity sold and gross sales value (i.e. quantity X cover price). 4. Every 6 months, the Accounts clerk will produce the Commission reports for each cleaning products salesman. This will show the commission that has been earned in the previous 6 months. A payment is then recorded and a cheque issued to each cleaning products salesman to whom commission is due, together with the Commission statement showing sales details, and the statement from the Accounts system the total amount due. Database specification Menu structure The many functions of the Commission System will be accessed by means of a front-end menu, which will have the following structure. The data model There are three main entities in this system related in the entity relationship diagram shown below. Because a many-to-many relationship cannot be applied in a relational database, an additional entity named Salesman/Product is introduced. The ERD can now be drawn as follows: The database for Gambino cleaning products salesman system specification will have the following tables: tblSalesman (SalesmanID, Surname, FirstName) tblProduct (ProductID, ProductName, SalesTeam, Price) tblSalesman/Product (ProductID, SalesmanID, StandardCommission, BonusCommission) tblSales (SalesNumber, ProductID, Date, QuantitySold, GrossValue) Name Type Meaning Range Where Used tblSalesman Table Salesman Table tblProduct Table Product Table tblSalesman/Product Table Salesman/Product Table tblSales Table Sales Table SalesmanID Text (5) Unique ID Primary key in tblSalesman Foreign key in tblSalesman/Product Surname Text (20) Salesman’s Surname tblSalesman Firstname Text (15) Salesman’s first name tblSalesman ProductID Text (5) Unique product code Primary key in tblProduct Foreign key in tblSalesman/Product ProductName Text (40) Product title tblProduct SalesTeam Text (40) All salesman who sell a product tblProduct Price Currency Product price tblProduct StandardCommission Number Percentage commission on each product sold 1-10 tblSalesman/Products BonusCommission Number Bonus percentage commission on each products sold 11-20 tblSalesman/Products SalesNumber Number 1=Standard commission 2=Bonus Commission 1 or 2 tblSales QuantitySold Number Number of products sold tblSales GrossValue Currency Data Dictionary Input Specification Three input forms will be required. frmProducts This will be used to enter product details. frmSalesman This will be used to enter details of a salesman and all products on which they receive commission. The commission percentages for each product will be entered in a subform of the main form. Validation methods: The Product ID will be selected from a drop-down list of existing Product ID’s. Once a Product ID is entered, the product name will be automatically displayed. frmTransaction This form will be used to enter transactions. Validation methods: Only valid dates will be accepted. The Product ID will be selected from a drop down list of existing Product ID’s. Once a Product ID is entered, the product name will be automatically displayed. Selecting a radio button so that only a valid alternative can be selected will choose the transaction type. Process Specification Commission Calculations To calculate the commission for a given transaction, a query has to be performed to combine attributes from tblTransaction, tblProduct, tblProduct/Salesman and tblSalesman. The calculation of the commission is performed as follows: If TransactionType = 1 (i.e ‘sales’) ThenRate = StandardCommissionRate ElseRate = BonusCommissionRate endif Amount = Rate * GrossValue These processes will be carried out in qryCommission. This query will be the source of both the commission report and the summary report. Maintenance Each year, transactions prior to a given date will be removed from tblTransactions. This prevents the transaction file from becoming too large and slowing down the system. The maintenance will be carried out as follows: Run a Delete query to delete records from tblTransaction. Test Plan Tests will be carried out using valid and invalid data and data at the extremes of acceptable values.

Compare and Contrast the Ways in Which Shakespeare and Webster Present Hamlet and Bosola as Tragic Heroes. Essay

Bosola from Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi and Hamlet from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, both present elements of Aristotle’s model of the tragic hero; through both of the characters, Shakespeare and Webster use the features of the tragic hero to engage Elizabethan and Jacobean audiences in an exploration of issues linked to the Renaissance, religion and philosophy. This essay will explore how the playwrights present the tragic flaws in their heroes’ character and how they face struggles due to their inner conflict and may exhibit villainous behavior but are not complete tyrants. Greek philosopher Aristotle recorded his ideas about tragedy dramas and the ‘tragic hero’ in his noted book of literary theory titled Poetics (335 BCE), the book was rediscovered during the Renaissance and became commonly used as a playwriting manual. Aristotle stated that the tragic hero is a character of noble stature and has greatness but although they are seen as pre-emin ently great, they are not perfect. The tragic hero’s downfall will come down to being mainly of their own doing through the result of free choice rather than accident or villainy or some other malevolent fate. Aristotle characterised the tragic hero as displaying hamartia which is usually translated as tragic flaw. There is also some increase in awareness and a sense of discovery upon the part of the tragic hero. Hamlet’s biggest flaw in character is that he over philosophises and delays killing Claudius up until it is too late for his family and himself. After he decides Claudius is guilty of murdering his father, he still relents from taking his revenge, he says â€Å"Haste me to know ‘t, that I, with wings as swift/ As meditation or the thought of love/ May sweep to my revenge.† (Act I, scene V). This quote displays Hamlet’s deep desire for revenge, the words are powerful and using words such as ‘swift’ gives the impression that he will not delay in taking action sugge sting that he is ready, however the juxtaposing simile embedded within the quote is soft and suggests Hamlet’s cogitating over thoughts of love possibly his love for Ophelia, ‘meditation’ also implies that he dwells in deep thought. Hamlet procrastinates a lot throughout the play; Smith says that â€Å"due to his brooding and introspective nature, he often wrangles with language to help him understand a reality where he has little control. Hamlet’s famous â€Å"to be or not to be† soliloquy questions the righteousness of life over death in moral terms and discusses the many possible reasons for either living or dying†, this does however  show the audience Hamlet’s humanity, Shakespeare can also use his character to engage with the prevalent philosophical ideas during the Renaissance period; Judkins states that â€Å"the Renaissance embraces a series of religious, economic, and political changes which ripple into areas of science, literature, and philosophy†, at a time of change and new ideas many writers such as Shakespeare would have been interested in the ideas explored during the Renaissance and so create characters to reflect it. One example of Hamlet’s dilemma ref lecting the debates in Elizabethan society, is linked to morality and law; Hamlet finds himself torn between his desire for revenge but also his philosophizing over the futility of life; J. J. Lawlor argues that â€Å"the avenger delays, not from despair or indecision which are finally rejected in favour of the duty of revenge, but†¦ because there is a scruple about revenge itself†. Hence, Hamlet’s scrupling reflects a man trapped in changing times between the Medieval Age when bloody revenge was accepted and the Tudor era of legal reformation where private revenge was outlawed. Bosola also shows internal conflict which could imply that he fits Aristotle’s model of the tragic hero, however it is shown more through his asides rather than soliloquies as shown in Hamlet. Bosola is very bitter towards the system and the way the country is ruled, with those above him abusing their power; but still he continues to carry out his ways, due to his greed ‘poisoning’ his morals, it can be said he is plagued by his own melancholy and will only debate the consequences afterwards. Boas suggests that â€Å"the tragic hero is made to feel him-self caught in a situation over which he has little control but in which he must make some decision, however futile. But the unhappy out-come always emerges from his decision. He must choose and cannot choose we ll†, so although Bosola chooses to avenge the duchess he kills her, her children, Antonio and himself in the process. It could also be said that Bosola fails to redeem himself because his actions are driven by revenge, after he kills the Cardinal and Ferdinand he says, â€Å"Now my revenge is perfect. Sink, thou main cause/ Of my undoing! The last part of my life/ Hath done me best service† (Act V, Scene, V). Like Shakespeare, Webster’s presentation of inner conflict in his protagonist also seems to suggest that the path of private retribution is complex and will lead to destruction. Bosola does also come to terms with his fate; â€Å"existential nihilists claim that, to be honest, one must face the absurdity  of existence, that he/she will eventually die† (Unknown Author). Bosola states that people are merely the â€Å"stars tennis balls† (Act V, Scene IV) that a person’s fate is already mapped out and everything is inevitable so Bosola feels like a victim of circumstance. John F Buckingham states that perhaps there is also an â€Å"etymological significance in Webster’s adjustment of the source name, ‘Bozola’ to a new spelling that references the word ‘Bossola’; Italian for a mariner‘s compass, pointing up the irony that Bosola‘s own final journey is directionless, away from justice†. It could be said that Hamlet also comes to terms with his fate and carries it upon his shoulders like a burden. â€Å"The time is out of joint: O cursed spite, that ever I was born to set it right!† (Act I, Scene V), here it could be said that Hamlet indisputably feels that he was born to avenge his father’s death, thus he vows to dedicate his life to vengeance. In the final scene Hamlet realizes that a person should be ready to accept the undeniable fact that death will come; Hamlet says to Horatio, â€Å"There’s special providence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, ‘tis not to come; if it be not to come, it will be now; if it be not now, yet it will come. The readiness is all† (Act V, Scene II). Both Hamlet and Bosola show villainous behaviour, but it can be argued that they aren’t in fact completely evil. Hamlet soon finds himself acting upon passion and is â€Å"at least at crucial moments of his experience, passion’s slave, as in his castigation of Ophelia and, more tragically, in his murder of her father† (Allan). Hamlet is not a bad person yet the pressure and intensity of his vengeance tears away at him; he finds himself acting sometimes rashly and uncertainly, and in the case of Polonius’ murder, he does not initially show any signs of remorse as he looks down on him calling him a â€Å"wretched, rash, intruding fool† (Act III, Scene IV), which suggests he is almost saying it is Polonius’ fault for getting involved and does not take responsibility. Hamlet’s actions are caused by his desire to avenge his father the old king Hamlet who was murdered by his brother Claudius and so it could be argued that had Hamlet not known that Claudius murdered his father, he would not have carried out the murders and would therefore not be villainous, as Hamlet was loved by the people and was known to be a smart scholar who went to university. Shakespeare uses Ophelia to reflect these views when she says, â€Å"O what a noble mind is here o’erthrown† (Act III, Scene I). Hamlet did not intend on  hurting his loved ones in the beginning and should not be seen as ‘evil’ as his aims were to only avenge his father. Allan comments that, â€Å"violence of word and deed do not come naturally to [Hamlet’s] reflective and moral temperament†. On the other hand, critic Augustus Schlegel argues that â€Å"[Hamlet] has a natural inclination for crooked ways; he is a hypocrite towards himself; his far-fetched scruples are often mere pretexts to cover up his want of determination†, this suggests that Hamlet is just as Machiavellian as Claudius but this reading would be too simple, and doe s not consider the impact of Hamlet’s humanity which is evident in his delay and conflicting thoughts. Bosola however is more entangled in Machiavellian scheming, serving the Duchess’ brothers, the Cardinal and Ferdinand, and so it could be said that he is not in fact a villain but instead just a working man. Bosola refers to himself as their â€Å"creature† (Act I, Scene I) with its connotations of unthinking, loyalty and inhumanity, Bosola carries out their deeds for his own material gain seemingly regardless of his morals most likely due to his bitterness and discontent with social structure and other existing conditions. Bosola is a key part of the plot and acts as a spy and a murderer but although it was his choice to have this way of life, in the end he stands for his beliefs. Bosola has already been to prison which implies he is criminal, but during his asides, it is evident that he is not an evil assailant but a man doing a job, â€Å"For the good deed you have done me, I must do all the ill man can invent†. He recognizes the consequences of his actions and feels remorse, for example, when Bosola is ordered to kill the Duchess, he cannot face her as his true self due to his sympathy towards her and so he disguises himself; C. G. Thayer states that â€Å"having caused the Duchess so much agony already, [Bosola] cannot now bear to have her recognize him as he comes to supervise her murder, or, more simply, that he is ashamed to appear in his own shape†. This idea of the counterfeit shape links to Machiavellian ideas but also links to his own sense of morality and feeling towards the Duchess and Antonio and his shame for how he is ruining their family and lives. Bosola cannot be seen to be a villain completely as at the end of play he plans to kill the Cardinal for making him kill all those people and for committing crimes, hoping to help save Antonio, and although he kills Antonio accidently, he did change his ways and tried to help, this is an excellent example of how Bosola resembles the tragic hero  figure. In conclusion it is clear that Hamlet fits the model of the tragic hero and it is evident that Bosola also fits the characteristics of a tragic hero. Smith describes Hamlet as â€Å"the quintessential tragic hero. Not only does he begin with the noblest motivations but by the end, his situation is so dire that the only plausible final act should be his death†. If we consider Bosola as the malcontent of the play, the audience can see he tends to view things cynically, and makes numerous critical comments on the nature of Renaissance society. Bell states that â€Å"Bosola also acts as a choric figure at regular intervals during the play and he often makes judgements on the other characters and the series of events†. However despite these more seemingly malcontent traits, it is evident that he can also be seen as a figure resembling the tragic hero. Hamlet and Bosola both display a tragic flaw in character, both display villainous behavior yet it is clear that they both have a sense of morality, neither character realize the right thing to do until the end of both plays and so fail to attain happiness. Shakespeare and W ebster both use the traits of the tragic hero to engage in and explore topics which were being challenged and revamped by the discoveries of the Renaissance period. Bibliography Allan, Phillip. Hamlet: Phillip Allan Literature Guide for A-Level. Hodder Education: Oxford shire, 2011. Bell, Millicent. Hamlet, Revenge! The Hudson Review, Vol. 51, No. 2 (Summer, 1998), pp. 310-328. Boas, George. The Evolution of the Tragic Hero. The Carleton Drama Review, Vol. 1, No. 1, Greek Tragedy (1955 – 1956), pp. 5-21. Buckingham, John F. The Dangerous Edge of Things: John Webster’s Bosola in Context & Performance, 2011. Judkins, David. Life in Renaissance England [Online] available at: Lawlor, J.J. The Tragic Conflict in Hamlet. The Review of English Studies. R.E.S New Series, Vol 1, No. 2, 1950. Schelegel, Augustus William. Criticisms on Shakespeare’s Tragedies: Hamlet. Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature. London, 1846. Hamlet. Ed. Cyrus Hoy. Norton and Company: New York, 1992, pp. 155-7. Shakespeare, William. â€Å"Hamlet†. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Smith, Nicole. Shakespeare’s Hamlet as a Tragic Hero [Online] av ailable at: Thayer, C. G. The Ambiguity of Bosola. Studies in Philology, Vol. 54, No.2 (Apr., 1957), pp. 162-171. (Unknown Author) Nihilism [Online] available at: Webster, John. â€Å"The Duchess of Malfi†. London: Methuen drama, 2001.

A case Study of Football Association of Wales Strategic Plan Essay

A case Study of Football Association of Wales Strategic Plan - Essay Example There is also a strong competition for both local and regional clubs. There are several professional players who compete at the national as well as the international level. There are many institutions that support and make contributions to different aspects of Welsh football, but the most outstanding of these groups has to be the Football Association of Wales (The Football Association of Wales, 2010). The Football Association of Wales is the governing body that controls football activities in Wales. FAW was formed in 1876, making it the third oldest national association on earth. FAW is a member of international football bodies such as UEFA and FIFA. It is also a member of the (IFAB) International Football Association Board. As the national football governing body in Wales, one of the duties of FAW is to run all the international teams which include the ‘A’ team, Under 17, Under 19, Under 21, Women’s Under 19, Women’s Under 17, Women’s and the Semi-Professional teams. Another important duty of FAW is to deal with all disciplinary cases involving teams and players who are associated with the body. The purpose of this paper is to examine Advanced Football management practices in Wales (Penny, 2008).

A State Tax on Plastic Shopping Bags Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A State Tax on Plastic Shopping Bags - Case Study Example These may take much longer than expected to decompose, approximately a thousand years since they are non-biodegradable materials. They also release harmful elements when burned. The waste then spreads to the major water sources posing serious danger to the marine life. What questions did you have while working on this case? When working on this case I had the following questions as a guideline. 1. How is the reception by the families and residents on the introduction of the 5 cents tax? 2. Will the 5 cents tax result to any difference in the polythene bags usage? 3. How will the revenue accrued from the new tax be used? 4. What are the opinions of the environmentalists on the issue of the use of plastic bags in California State? 5. What are the available plastic wastes management options that can be employed? What do you consider the most useful information provided with the case? Among the useful information provided in the case include the information that if the tax imposed is ver y little there will be no effect on the consumer behavior. The grocery checkouts also prefer plastic bags as compared to other bags. This is because they are cheaper and cost between $0.005 U.S. cents and $0.01 U.S. cents as compared with paper bags which cost between $0.05 and $0.15 U.S. cents. It is also documented that the number of plastic bags used in California stands at 500 billion. Environmental advocates also support that reusable bags should be used in place of plastic bags. What assumptions did you have while working on this case? I assumed that the state shall have a properly established channel for the tax collection. It will also handle the issue of litter pollution. I also assumed that once the tax is introduced, all the consumers will reduce the amounts of plastic polythene bags and instead opt for the reusable bags or paper bags. The groceries will also start charging for the packaging. Through these considerations I assumed that consumers will develop a habit of se eking an alternative method in carrying their shopping and reduce plastic bag usage. In the same manner, the disposal crisis that has been a major concern shall also be addressed. What tool(s) did you used in analyzing the information? I did a total analysis of the figures and data of the actual effects of the introduction of the five cent tax for every polythene bag usage on the producers. In addition to this, I compared the effect of this tax introduction with other mechanisms that can be employed in controlling polythene bag waste management in California State. I also analyzed the fiscal amount of revenue that may be accrued from the imposition of the tax. What are your findings? The introduction of the tax will greatly contribute to sanity in the marine environment which accounts for forty three billion dollars in proceeds and over four hundred thousand employment opportunities yearly. Though there was a mixed reaction from the introduction of the 5 cents tax, the general publi c really does support it. They cite that there will be a relief of about two million dollars on the locals from paying garbage collection fee yearly. The plastic manufacturers will however oppose it. They cite potential loss of income and fines in failure to comply with the tax policy. The findings indicate that the poor are concerned that from the imposed taxes will result into a higher cost for the polythene bags. This will have a greater impact on the low-income

Modern Business in Comparative Perspective Essay

Modern Business in Comparative Perspective - Essay Example The factor condition represents the factor that contributes towards the country and provides a clear distinction between the basic and the advanced factors. The basic factors mainly signify the physical and natural resources, capital resources as well as unskilled labors. The advanced factors are represented by the â€Å"digital data communication infrastructure† (Dogl, Holtbrugge and Schuster, 2012, p. 194) and educated personnel. The demand conditions symbolize the demand for various types of domestic product and services within a country in a certain industry. In this case the attributes like the composition, amount and pattern of expansion along with internationalization of domestic claims are quite significant. Supporting industries signify those industries with which the company can share their activities intersectorally in the value chain like for instance marketing, suppliers, delivery channels and technology advancement. Firm strategy describes the conditions of the c ountry and the ways in which a firm can be operated. This factor is also determined by the domestic rivalry, goal of the firm as well as individual and formation of new business of the firm. The competitive advantage of the firm is also determined by the external factors such as government and chance. ... According to Stone and Ranchhod (2006), Porter’s focus on the magnitude of rivalry and competition, this is an absolute diversion from the traditional concepts of economic thinking. Porter’s Diamond framework is found in most of the books in management academics, which suggests that like firms, countries are also competing with one another. Peng (2009) refers that the Diamond model is one of the modern theories, which provides a perfect realistic amalgamation of country, industry and firm in order to explain international competitiveness of the countries whereas other theories have previously provide explanation about one or two aspects. Hill (2009) claims that the theory proposed by Porter appears to be true but has never undergone through rigorous testing. However Porter’s Diamond Model is subjected to criticism from both management and economics school. The critics from the management school suggests the Diamond Model of Porter does not focuses on the attribut es of the trading partners present in the home country (Rugman, 1990), and at the same time it also ignores the influence of the multinational companies on the competitive success of the country (Dunning 1992, 1993). The Model does not work for the smaller nations (Bellak & Weiss 1993; Cartwright 1993). Rugman (1990) suggests to include the features of the largest trading partners of the home nation, which would be an extension of the of Porter’s Diamond Model. This â€Å"double diamond† approach should address the competitiveness that depends on both foreign and domestic diamond and the management of the domestic firms will be able to exploit both the diamonds in order to sustain in global competition (Rugman 1990; Rugman & D’Cruz 1993). On the other hand the critics from the

Fiscal and monetary policy theories and application Essay

Fiscal and monetary policy theories and application - Essay Example Fiscal policy entails the processes through which the government achieves major economic goals through taxes and government spending. The government collects tax and spends it to achieve economic development. Taxation is one of the key avenues though which governments collect revenues from local and foreign residents. Three main aspects that make up fiscal policy include consumption, investment and government spending. In this sense, the government relies on the three aspects of demand to achieve desired economic goals. The desired economic goals include full employment, price stability, economic growth, and maintenance of a favorable balance of payment, The three aspects add up to determine the equilibrium level of the gross domestic product. On the other hand, monetary policies refer to the manipulations of interest rates and money supply to achieve various economic ends. The economic ends are similar in the sense that they entail full employment, economic growth, price stability, and a favorable balance of payment. This suggests that the fiscal policies and the monetary policies possess the same goals. In the regulation of the money in circulation, central bank adjusts the interest rate that entails the price of borrowing money. In the history of economics, different schools of thought vouch for different policies. The fiscalists rely on the Keynesian school of thought in stabilizing the economy. This school of thought believes that fiscal policies are the only effective measure of instigating economic growth during a period of recession in a country. In turn, monetary policies are ineffective in stirring economic growth during a recession in a country.

Rowe's Cosmological Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rowe's Cosmological Argument - Essay Example The Principle of Sufficient Reason follows the idea that everything must have an explanation. In the arguments for God’s existence, this principle is commonly used to explain the causal or creative power. There are normally four unique forms of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. The first one is known as the Principle of Sufficient Reason of Becoming is the first form and it states that if an object’s new form appears, there must have been another similar state. The Principle of Sufficient Reason of knowing states that for judgment to express some knowledge, there must be sufficient ground which serves as a basis for the knowledge. This quality gives judgment a level of being true a fact that can be used on the judgment when it is being used for something else. The principle of Sufficient Reason of Acting states that all human decisions are results of an object that has the power to determine the will of humans by acting as the motive for such a will. Just like the Principle of Sufficient Reason, the cosmological argument maintains that the existence of the universe had to come from somewhere (Sullivan 330). In other words, there must have been an original or first cause that made it possible for the universe to exist. The cosmological point of view highlights the relevance of the first cause, arguing that the first cause does exist and is most certainly recognizable as God. In this regard, the cosmological world view about the existence of God may require the Principle of Sufficient Reason to put more emphasis on the fact that the first cause, or God, has an explanation. ... In this regard, the cosmological world view about the existence of God may require the Principle of Sufficient Reason to put more emphasis on the fact that the first cause, or God, has an explanation. Rowe in his explanation of the Cosmological Argument, identifies two parts of the Principle of Sufficient Reason: the first part requires that an explanation is necessary for the existence of everything, which means that one must be able to identify the cause of any being that is in existence. The second part of the principle requires that for any positive fact, there has to be an explanation. Rowe argues that there are three ways of explaining the existence of a being: explanation by itself, by another being or by nothing (Rowe 18). This means that the existence of all beings, and to a great extension, the whole universe, is fully accounted for. I completely agree with the views of the Cosmological Argument presented by Rowe. There has to be an explanation or a reason why the universe exists or why things are the way they are. For the universe to come to existence, it must have come from somewhere. The cause of this existence is definitely a Supreme Being, or God. I disagree with those who oppose the Cosmological Argument saying that the existence of the universe does not necessarily mean that there is a Supreme Being. I also support Leigniz’s Principle of Sufficient Reason which implies the same thing implied by the Cosmological Argument: that there must be sufficient reason for everything that exists or happens and this sufficient reason is definitely God. Many people normally ask then if this is the case, is there a sufficient reason for God to exist (Rowe and Trakakis 3). In my opinion, God’s existence

UNIT 4 DISCUSSION BOARD Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

UNIT 4 DISCUSSION BOARD - Essay Example This is why managers should base their pricing decision on solid ground. Major factors that should be considered are the market (i.e. customer demand), cost, actions of competitors, and political, legal, and image related issues. The process of determining customer demand is critically essential and continuous. It is even necessary to conduct market research. Though internal and production aspects such as quality are vital, managers must make certain that the product is not priced out of the market. The function of costs is based almost completely on market forces. Producers must meet the market by charging prices below the market price. Generally, both market forces and cost factors greatly affects prices. If a manager wants to effectively decide on pricing, he or she must keep an eye on the market. However, it should also be noted that costs must be covered in the long run. (http://www.canberra.edu.au/uc/lectures/mantech/accounting/sem981/unit4827/Lecture_Week_3_-_Pricing.txt). The pricing decisions that a manager makes should achieve the firm’s financial goals (i.e. profitability); meet up with the realities of the marketplace (by evaluating whether the consumers will buy at that price?); and keep up with the positioning of a product and with the other variables in the marketing mix. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricing#A_well_chosen_price_should_do_three_things:) However, legal issues should still be considered in pursuing these ends. Legislative restrictions are necessary because they prevent the possible setbacks or damages that individual firms’ pricing decisions could cost other firms, the consumers, or the economy in the aggregate. The law influences pricing decisions to entail responsibility. It creates awareness on the part of the firm to evaluate the consequences of their pricing decisions in a greater perspective. Moreover, the law influences pricing decisions in the sense that given price restrictions,

Economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Economics - Assignment Example At the core of the concern for methodology in economics is a concern on how economics acquire knowledge on the world and what methodologies economics use to expand the frontiers of that knowledge. Also closely related to the concern is the discipline’s notion of what constitutes science and what knowledge can be considered as scientific or what knowledge can be considered as lacking a scientific basis or foundation. According to Hausman (1989, p. 115), the literature on economic methodology is mainly concerned with confirmation or disconfirmation of theory and has usually revolved on whether a particular economics is good science. Milton Friedman had viewed that good economic theories provide correct and useful predictions while Paul Samuelson had upheld that economic theories must involve operational concepts that are equivalent to their descriptions (Hausman, 1989, p.115). For Hausman, however, these views are mistaken because many of economic theorizing have been conceptual explorations and theories do not necessarily offer empirical hypotheses. According to Hauman, the four approaches that have dominated the discussion on economic methodology are deductivism, positivism or Popperianism, predictionism, and eclecticism. Hausman (1989) associates deductivism with Johan Stuart Mill, the discussion on positivism or Popperianism with Mark Blaug, predictionism with Milton Friedman, and eclecticism with Donald McCloskey. Deductivism asserts that because so many causal factors can influence economic phenomena, experimentation is generally not possible and induction cannot be directly employed (Hausman, 1989, p. 116, 3rd paragraph). The deductivist solution is to derive inductively the psychological or technical laws and then deduce the economic implications from the laws that were discovered inductively (Hausman, 1989, p. 116, 3rd paragraph). Empirical tests are needed to check whether the empirically derived conclusions are applicable, whether the

Qualities I Lacked to Work Effectively in a Group Personal Statement

Qualities I Lacked to Work Effectively in a Group - Personal Statement Example Being an egocentric person, the situation was too difficult for me to survive. Being a person who always liked to outperform others and too intolerant in failures, I found the situation humiliating far beyond my expectations. Along with these, the hard reality hit my mind that my abilities were not as good as I expected and I had a long way to go to prove my mettle. It became a nightmare for me to work in a group in the field. Many a time, I found my seniors engaging other members in the team with works that I could do better and adding to my woes, I always erred or had insufficient knowledge in the ones I was handed. I was getting criticized but had no way to react as I found myself in a world where no one seemed interested in recognizing the talent of another one; instead, everyone was looking for ways to undermine others. It was a picture that I never dreamt of. There were two things that I lacked; lack of knowledge in certain specific areas and lack of experience. It was too conf using for me to take a decision; on one hand, I wanted to quit the profession forever and on the other, I wanted to prove my abilities after getting the required qualifications. Finally, I decided to put off my ego and asked my tutor about the future course I had to adopt. She was more than ready to provide advice and on her advice and support, I decided to join this course so that I can improve my knowledge and have a new beginning with sufficient knowledge. In addition, I wrote to MSF after joining my course and I am advised to complete my studies to apply for even better positions in MSF. Now, I am happy that I did not lose heart and give up the idea. Feelings – looking in The incident made me look deep into the wide variety of emotions that ruled my mind at that time. As I already mentioned I had an egalitarian nature and I had a problem accepting suggestions and advice and I always nurtured the feeling that I am better than others and it was so in my academic pursuit. Ho wever, out in the field, I found it hard to digest that what I do just goes wrong or the workplace requires more ability than I possessed. It was totally indigestible and unbelievable in the beginning as my ego did not accept it that easily. Still, I knew very well that I could do much better than what many others did but had no opportunity. I found it humiliating as I was very often criticized for the lack of knowledge. Now I have to accept the fact that the reason behind my misery at work was mostly because of my ego and lack of knowledge compounded with my dislike to seek help from others. However, the feeling of utter disappointment made me seek help, though reluctantly, and when I sought advice and became ready to accept, the solution was immediate.  

Agains Drugs in Sport Essay Example for Free

Agains Drugs in Sport Essay Drugs in sport is an issue that is always in the spotlight, especially during major athletic events such as the recent and highly controversial, Tour De France. However, now the issue has risen to such an extent that sport itself is almost a side issue. There have been numerous drug busts over the years as more and more athletes succumb to the temptation of an easy win by using steroids and various other performance-enhancing drugs. The frustration of continuously losing and the anger of finding that a drug-using athlete had been banned, only to come back and cheat again, makes those who do not use illegal drugs wonder about the credibility of the sport. There have also been cases, where even though the athlete was banned, they did not appear to suffer financially. This was proved in the case of Ben Johnson, who was banned in 1988 for illegal drug use but still had enough money to buy a fleet of sports cars. Athletes would then ask themselves, What is the point in competing if the opposing athletes can use illegal drugs and often escape the consequences? This was proved in the recent Tour De France, where the Festina team was expelled for drug use. However soon after that, a member from the Festina team was chosen to All performance-enhancing drugs have some side effects. Some are potentially fatal, while others can cause heart or liver problems. When athletes take these drugs, they often do not know the amount that they can take safely, and as a result, many die from overdose. This was proved when cyclist Linton, died as a result of trimethyl overdose in 1886. Give modern examples. There are only two solutions to controlling or stopping illegal drug usage; the first is to increase drug testing to cover every possible performance-enhancing drug; and the other is to make all performance-enhancing drugs legal. The first solution is not viable as it would require an immense amount of funding and at least 10 years before drug testing can become as sophisticated as the newly made drugs. The latter solution, however, would not require any of these unfeasible techniques. By making performance-enhancing drugs legal, athletes who do not use drugs because of the risk of getting caught, can now do so. They then would also have a chance of winning against the athletes who used to use drugs. Because these drugs would be legalized, countries would be able to carry out scientific research on them. This would allow doctors to prescribe safe doses of these drugs to athletes and thus they would not run the risk of possible death from drug overdose. The athletes do not realize the dangers involved with drug taking and doctors can help them by telling them which drug is safe and how much they should take of that drug. Not only that, it will finally allow us to get back to enjoying the sport rather than debating the ethics of performance-enhancing drugs in sport.

Kaizen Costing Method And Its Role In The Management Of An Entity Accounting Essay

Kaizen Costing Method And Its Role In The Management Of An Entity Accounting Essay 1. Introduction The purpose of my article is to let the managers know about a costing method, which applied even in the current crisis, will not only lead to an avoidance of bankruptcy, but may lead to even make a profit by improving competitiveness and financial efficiency. Quality means to continuously meet the customers demands, total quality means to continuously meet the customers demands in terms of minimum cost, and total quality management ensures to continuously meet the customers demands in terms of minimum cost, involving all employees. 2. Objectives The main objective of this research is to identify a solution to permanent increase of production quality while reducing cost and time of selling. To achieve this goal, we conducted a theoretical fundamental research, through which I tried to transpose several features of Japanese management plan for a new costing method. 3. Methodology With no intention to exhaust the limits of thissubject matter, I made appeal in my scientific approach to a rigorous study of the literature and analyzed various points of view raised by specialists in this field. I made appeal to research methods such as documentation, analysis, synthesis. Assumptions, methodology approach and the results are my own contributions. 4. Analyses Maintenance and improvement are two inseparable concepts in Japanese management. Improvement is assessed by two terms: kaizen and innovation. Kaizen is a Japanese management concept launched by Masaaki Imai, which proved to be the key to Japanese competitive success. The significance of this concept is: KAI = Change and ZEN = for better, and the translation is continuous improvement, that means small improvements to the ongoing efforts. Unlike the Western conception, implying total change, at large intervals of time, using large amounts of resources and a high cost level, Kaizen Costing seeks daily, gradual, slow, but continuous improvements, which take place at minimal cost. Kaizen Costing message strategy is that a single day should not pass without an improvement to intervene in the activity of each employee or each entity. The Japanese have shown that by applying this strategy, improvement is achieved with minimal expenditure. Specific characteristics that ensure successful approach of Kaizen activities are the following: disregards all ideas implemented so far in the organization of production; rejects the whole existent situation; it does not look for perfection, seeking a 40-50% improvement of the existent situation, but at an acceptable cost; allows any manager to use their knowledge and personal skills; the ideas produced by many people are better than the ideas of a single person; the improvements have no limits. Cost is one of the basic synthetic indicators that characterize the effectiveness of an entitys activity. The importance of production cost is related to the functions it fulfills in the context of economic-financial mechanism, schematically presenting itself as follows: ensures the resumption of production, measures the means of production and labour, allows the calculation of some efficiency indicators and the real knowledge of activity quality, sizes the profitability of economic entities, etc.  [1]   Kaizen Costing Management is focused on improving each process of a technological product sheet, the main goal being eliminating losses and minimizing costs. Process improvement ensures production efficiency, kaizen type activities ensuring maximization of product value corresponding to the requirements of the beneficiary, a qualitative differentiation of this. There are eliminated all those functions of the product which the customer has no interest in and which bring a cost increase without a correspondent in value. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾The KAIZEN principles presumes a practical approach and low costs of improvement. The Kaizen management system is based on the continuous loss reduction by means of methods that do not rely on investments, but on the improvement of the processes and the employeesperformance. According to the Kaizen principles, we must be sure that, when we take an action, our action will go on in the best possible way and is not merely an intermediate action to generate a temporary result  [2]   Innovation is achieved by sudden changes and generates radical improvements, compared to the initial situation, which is due to significant investments in technology, performance and equipment. Figure no. 1 shows the distinction between innovation, kaizen and maintenance: Source: Imai 1997 Figure no. 1 Therefore, Imai (1997) describes that the improvement can be divided into Kaizen and innovation. Kaizen signifies small improvements as a result of ongoing efforts. Innovation involves a drastic improvement as a result of large investment of resources in new technology or equipment. The author also explains that in the context of Kaisen, management has two major functions: maintenance and improuvement. Maintenance refers to activities directed towards maintaining current technologies, managerial and operating standards, and upholding such standards through training and discipline. Under its maintenance function, management performs its assigned tasks so that everybody can follow standard operating procedure.  [3]   Thomas M. Fischer and Jochen A. Schmitz K in Control Measures for Kaizen Costing-Formulation and Practical Use of the Half-Life Model considered that Kaizen costing focuses on continuous reductions of costs, which should be realized for existing products in a company. For planning and control purposes, comprehensive and efficient tools for measuring performance are required  [4]  . 4. Critical In implementing Kaizen Costing strategy, managers rely on other techniques, methods and tools such as: quality circles, suggestions system, kanban, total productive maintenance, action plans, etc. The success of this strategy is subject to a number of changes in the entitys culture and value system on which it is based. Suggesting small steps strategy, Kaizen Costing is a concept of umbrella which treats the basic methods and concepts applied in quality management in Japan and whose value is recognized worldwide (Figure no. 2).The superiority of the concept stems from the fact that, by applying small steps strategy, the necessary resources are insignificant, while the strategies based on innovations involve huge investments, although the results are relatively the same. In addition, Kaizen brings in the forefront the employees of the entity, who are motivated to participate consciously and responsibly to achieve the objectives of the entity. In this process the most important dimension is the organizational one, the ability to communicate. Successful implementation of this approach is given by the technical and managerial knowledge, put together, and by the across application of some management tools (ABC, benchmarking). Source: http://afr.kaizen.com; Imai (1986) Figure no. 2. The implementation of Kaizen Costing management system in economic organizations in our country would bring immediate gains by eliminating waste and losses, increasing labour productivity by 20-30%, reducing operating costs by 15-20%, reducing used areas, reducing the equipment needs and increasing the use of the remaining, increasing staff motivation. Kaisen Costing focuses the entity interest and attention on those places where you can reduce costs, this means on operating the production process and its development in the most efficient way. Unlike Target (used by design staff before the product is in production), Costing Kaizen Costing is used by production staff during product manufacture. Both follow the same target, but they differ in the method of settling the target: on perspective, Target Costing is based on customer considerations, while Kaizen Costing is based on profitability targets imposed by manager. As a method of cost calculation and resizing, Kaizen Costing represents the expression of returning to the source, through the causes of performance and the roots of productivity, what is possible in a cross-viewing, and performing a process analysis under the ABC Method. Cost reduction approach results by comparing the target-cost to the estimated one, and is fulfilled in terms of value, through an iterative process of continuous improvement.  [5]   Thus, Kaizen Costing is not interested in the product but in manufacturing process, which is more than just a cost method, but a global management tool. Obviously, there are factors that hinder implementation and obtaining good results in Romanian entities. Among them the most influential one is the mentality, or psychological profile of Romanians, which do not encourage the achievement requirements of such management, but there is great criticism concerning the stress staff has to deal with. 5. Conclusions In conclusion Kaisen Costing is the ideal management system to reduce costs. Through the application of this management style in managerial accounting, entities with limited resources could significantly mitigate the negative impact of current economic and financial crisis. As Masaaki Imai shows, Restructuring or reinventing your company can be destructive, expensive and often inoperable. Applying Kaizen in gemba (job, where the action occurs), significant improvement is achieved with low costs in core business processes production and services and can be obtained, as never before, major leaps in customer satisfaction, in quality, productivity and profitability. For those who want to learn and apply this management system, I mention the following advantages: implementation costs are reduced, as Kaizen makes better use of existing resources and does not require large investments in improving technology, staff training costs are lower than for other methods, in Romania there are consulting firms in the field, entities that have implemented Kaizen have achieved remarkable results in labor productivity, in cost reduction and competitiveness increase.

Study Of Solubility Equilibrium Biology Essay

Study Of Solubility Equilibrium Biology Essay The solubility product constant of potassium hydrogen tartrate in water and it dependence of temperature were investigated in this experiment. The solubility product constant was determined at different temperature through acid-base titration against NaOH. A linear graph was obtained by plotting ln Ksp against 1/T and positive correlation between temperatures and solubility product constant was observed. This study concluded that solubility product constant of potassium hydrogen tartrate is dependent only on temperature. Introduction The aim of this experiment is to investigate the solubility product constant of potassium hydrogen tartrate in water and it dependence on temperature. Solubility is often defined the amount of substance required in obtaining a saturated solution. Therefore, only a small amount of potassium hydrogen tartrate (KHC4H4O6) is needed to produce a saturated solution as it has limited solubility in water. In the saturated solution, the rate of the dissociation of the solid is the same as the rate of the aqueous ions forming the solid compound; the solution is known to be at equilibrium. The equilibrium equation for KHC4H4O6 in the solution can be written as: The constant for the equilibrium equation can be expressed as: Ksp = [K+] [HC4H4O6-]. This constant is also known as the solubility product constant (Ksp) which has a fixed value for a given system at constant temperature. Thus, by finding out the concentration of the ions dissolved, the solubility product constant for KHC4H4O6 can be determined. From the equation above, the dissociation of KHC4H4O6 will produce equal amount of potassium ions (K+) and hydrogen tartrate ions (HC4H4O6-). Thus, by obtaining the concentration of one of the ions, the concentration of the other ion can be derived and the solubility product constant can be calculated. As HC4H4O6- behaves like a weak acid, its concentration can be determined by acid-base titration using NaOH, a strong base as the titrant, with phenolphthalein as the indicator. As NaOH and HC4H4O6- react with each other in 1:1 ratio, the amount of NaOH used in the titration will be equal to the amount of HC4H4O6- present in the solution. While Ksp is fixed at a certain condition, changes in temperature will affect the value of Ksp. According to the vant hoff equation, the value of Ksp is related to the change in Gibbs free energy and can be expressed as: From the equation, the solubility product constant depends on three variables which are the change in enthalpy, the change in entropy and the temperature. The change in entropy and enthalpy with respect to temperature were stated to be insignificant due to the similar heat capacities of the product and reactants. This suggests a linear trend between the remaining variable and Ksp [1]. Therefore, a graph of natural logarithm of Ksp versus the reciprocal of temperature can be plot which the gradient of the graph can be used to calculate the enthalpy change and the y-intercept for the entropy change. Thus, the relationship between Ksp and temperature can be observed. Experimental Procedure Dried KHC8H4O4 (0.5002 g) was prepared in a 250 mL conical flask with the help of an analytical balance. Deionized water (25.0 mL) was added into the flask and a standard solution of KHC8H4O4 was obtained. The prepared solution was then titrated against an unknown concentration of NaOH to the endpoint, with phenolphthalein as the indicator. The volume of NaOH used was recorded. The entire procedure was then repeated with different masses KHC8H4O4 (0.5039 g, 0.5033 g). The concentration of the NaOH was calculated from the volume of NaOH used and tabulated in Table 1. A saturated KHC4H4O6 solution was prepared by adding one gram of KHC8H4O4 into a 250 mL conical flask, containing 100.0 mL of deionized water. The flask was swirled for five minutes and put to rest with occasional swirling for another five minutes at room temperature. At the end of ten minutes, the solution was then filtered and the supernatant was collected in a dry 250 mL conical flask. Concurrently, the temperature of the solution in the filter funnel was recorded. Two portions of 25.0 mL of the filtered solution were then pipetted into two separate 250 mL conical flasks. The two solutions were titrated against the 0.7070M NaOH solution to the endpoint, with phenolphthalein as the indicator. The volume of the NaOH used was recorded. The procedure was then repeated for different temperatures. For temperature above room temperature, a hot water bath was prepared in a one litre beaker on a hotplate stirrer. The saturated KHC4H4O6 solution was prepared in the same way but was placed in a hot water bath with constant stirring, using a stir bar. The solution was put aside with occasional monitoring until a constant temperature was observed. Next, the solution was decanted in small amount into a dry conical flask. The temperature of the solution in the filter funnel was recorded concurrently. Three portions of 25.0 mL of the filtered solution were then pipetted into three separate 250 mL conical flasks. For temperature below room temperature, an ice-water bath was prepared in a one litre beaker. The solution was also prepared in the same way as the previous procedure and was placed into the ice-water bath. The solution was cooled until the solution stabilized at a certain temperature. The solution was then filtered and the temperature of the solution in the filter funnel was recorded. Three portions of 25.0 mL of the filtered solution were then pipetted into three separate 250 mL conical flasks similar to the above room temperature setup. The six solutions were then placed aside for it to return to room temperature and then titrated against the standardized NaOH. The solutions were titrated the same way as the titration done at room temperature. The volume of NaOH used was recorded for the different solutions were recorded. The average volume of NaOH used for the same temperature was then calculated and tabulated in Table 2. Data Treatment and Analysis The calculations of [HC4H4O6-], [K+] and Ksp at 302.15K: [NaOH] = 7.070 x 10-2 mol L-1 Amount of NaOH used = (7.070 x 10-2 mol L-1) (1.2825 x 10-2 L) = 9.067 x 10-4 mol Amount of HC4H4O6- = Amount of NaOH used = 9.067 x 10-4 mol [HC4H4O6-] = [K+] = 9.067 x 10-4 / (0.0250 L) = 3.63 x 10-2 mol L-1 Ksp = [K+] [HC4H4O6-] = (3.63 x 10-2 mol L-1)2 = 1.32 x 10-3 The calculated value of [K+], [HC4H4O6-] and Ksp were tabulated into the table below: Table 2: Determination of Ksp of KHC4H4O6 at different temperature Temperature / K Average Vol. of NaOH used / L Amount of NaOH used / mol [HC4H4O6-] / mol L-1 [K+] / mol L-1 Kspof KHC4H4O6 285.15 7.4750 x 10-3 5.327 x 10-4 2.13 x 10-2 2.13 x 10-2 4.54 x 10-4 294.15 1.0075 x 10-2 7.180 x 10-4 2.87 x 10-2 2.87 x 10-2 8.25 x 10-4 302.15 1.2825 x 10-2 9.067 x 10-4 3.63 x 10-2 3.63 x 10-2 1.32 x 10-3 309.15 1.6375 x 10-2 1.158 x 10-3 4.63 x 10-2 4.63 x 10-2 2.14 x 10-3 320.15 2.2375 x 10-2 1.582 x 10-3 6.33 x 10-2 6.33 x 10-2 4.00 x 10-3 Based on the temperature and Ksp value obtained in Table 1, values of 1/T and ln Ksp were calculated and tabulated in Table 3. A graph was plotted based on the values: Figure 1: Graph of Ksp versus 1/T From Figure 1, the gradient and y-intercept was obtained as shown in Table 4. The enthalpy change and entropy change was calculated based on the vant hoff equation: Gradient = (/ R) = -5692.06 Standard deviation of gradient: Â ± 99.87 = (-5692.06 x 8.314) Â ± (99.87 x 8.314) = (47.32 Â ± 0.83) kJ K-1 mol-1 Y-intercept = (/ R) = 12.25 Â ± 0.33 Standard deviation of Y-intercept = Â ± 0.33 = (12.25 x 8.314) Â ± (0.33 x 8.314) = (101.85 Â ± 2.74) J K-1 mol-1 The standard error of regression was found to be 0.0295. (Number of measurements = 6, Degree of Freedom = 4) Results and Discussion From the data obtained, the calculated values of and were (47.3 Â ± 0.83) kJ K-1 mol-1 and (101.85 Â ± 2.74) J K-1 mol-1 respectively. Ksp of KHC4H4O6 was found to be 1.32 x 10-3 at 302.15K. It was observed that a linear graph was obtained upon plotting ln Ksp against the reciprocal of T. The increase in temperature was also found to correlate with the increase of Ksp values. The literature Ksp value for KHC4H4O6 is 3.8 x 10-4 at 291.15K. [2] The approximated Ksp value that corresponds to 291.15k based on experimental data was calculated to be 6.755 x 10-4 as shown in the Appendices. Linear Relationship between T and Ksp Based on figure 1, a linear model was observed between the reciprocal of T and the natural logarithm of Ksp. This was supported by the R-square value of 0.99 which greatly suggests a linear trend from the experimental data plotted. The standard error of regression obtained from the experiment was found to be 0.0295, which indicates a good fit among the experimental values obtained, corresponding to a good precision of the experimental data. Thus from the linear trend, the claim of insignificant changes of enthalpy and entropy due to temperature changes was valid. Therefore, the assumption that the value of Ksp is dependent only on temperature at which the dissolution occurs can be established. Comparison of Literature values The estimated Ksp value based on experimental data was 6.755 x 10-4 at 291.15K and was found to be 43.75% higher than the literature value (3.8 x 10-4) [2]. The difference could be accounted to the limitation of this experiment. As the experiment was carried out in different temperature, one of the limitations was due to the apparatus used. The volumetric glass pipette used was calibrated at 20 , thus at other temperature, expansion or contraction might occur leading to the inaccurate volume transferred for titration after the filtering process. Another source of error was noted to be the temperature fluctuation during the filtering process. Although the solution were decant in small portions to minimize errors, rapid increase of the temperature for the cold temperature reading was observed. This corresponds to the increase in the ions concentration dissolved in the solution, thus resulting in a higher value of Ksp. Despite the percentage difference of 43.75%, the difference between both values was actually small due to the fact that the Ksp of KHC4H4O6 is a very small value. When the uncertainty of the enthalpy change and entropy change was taken into account, the experimental Ksp value was assumed to be between 3.446 x 10-4 and 1.324 x 10-3(Refer to Appendices). The literature value was noted to be within this range, thus the experimental data do agree with the theoretical value of KHC4H4O6. Change of Enthalpy and Entropy The change of enthalpy from the reaction was found to be (47.3 Â ± 0.83) kJ K-1 mol-1. The positive enthalpy change means that the dissolution of KHC4H4O6 was an endothermic process where heat was absorbed during the process. This was expected as the dissolution breaks up the stronger ionic bonds within KHC4H4O6 and weaker bonds between the water molecules and the ions was formed. These resulted in a positive net change for enthalpy for the reaction, which is consistent with the positive enthalpy change derived from the experimental data. The change of entropy was found to be (101.85 Â ± 2.74) J K-1 mol-1. As entropy was often defined as a measure of disorder, the positive entropy can be explained with the increased disorder brought about when the when KHC4H4O6 dissolved into ions. As the value of enthalpy change was much larger than the entropy change, in order to get a larger value of ln K based on the vant hoff equation, higher temperature was required. This coincide with high temperature favors endothermic process such as dissolution of KHC4H4O6, thus it can be concluded that temperature have a positive correlation with Ksp. Conclusion Ksp have a linear relationship with temperature for KHC4H4O6. The temperature dependent of enthalpy change and entropy change was found to be insignificant for the dissolution of KHC4H4O6. As dissolution is an endothermic process, temperature has a positive correlation with Ksp, thus higher temperature allow more KHC4H4O6 to dissolve. This concluded that solubility product constant of potassium hydrogen tartrate is dependent only on temperature.

Essay About Family: The Wives Tales :: Personal Narrative essay about my family

I am convinced that my mother and my father found solace in each other because they could no longer bear the madness of their brothers and sisters. Most of my aunts and uncles have second names to mark their exceptionality. My father’s eldest brother is called â€Å"Urgent† because he only calls when he needs money and always tells the kids to leave the message: â€Å"Urgent. Urgent, tell your dad to call me back urgent!† My father’s youngest brother calls himself â€Å"Castro† because his first name is Fidel. This brother shaves his head and wears a goatee to look more like the real Castro. My mother’s brothers and sisters are no better. One of Mom’s brothers married a woman named â€Å"Daughter,† which is just beyond me. Really, her parents must have been at their wits’ end; I wonder whether they had so many daughters that they surrendered to making all the children’s names alike. Mom’s sister, Rajo, â€Å"Auntie Money,† is the most fun, especially during tax season when she tries to convince her accountant to get her a deduction for all the gifts, trips, and baubles she buys her nieces and nephews. Chandra is the most laughable of Mom’s seven sisters. Aunt Chandra is always trying to pass her â€Å"pearls of wisdom† down to everybody, making herself look foolish to great public audiences. In Guyana, she held an elite position at the national post-secondary school, teaching who knows what. I often wonder at the ignorance and superstition behind the things she says. At one of our frequent dinner parties, the ladies in the kitchen were having a conversation about motherhood and how hard it is to choose between staying home with their kids and going back to work. While everyone else settled down to eat, Chandra, Mom and I busied ourselves making pepper sauce, cleaning the clutter off of countertops and refilling bowls of food. Conversation halted as the clacking of spoons, smacking of tongues, and the machinations of eating and drinking supplanted the lively chattering. Chandra took the opportunity to offer up a piece of her mind: â€Å"You know, guys, I have always noticed that I had my kids when there’s a full moon. Babies can only be conceived under a full moon. I am telling you, those scientists don’t know it yet. But I know.† I could not keep myself from laughing. Amazingly, Fidel’s wife, Nadira, reproached me, â€Å"No, it’s true.

Essay --

The Catcher in the Rye was written by J.D. Salinger. The main character is Holden Caulfield. Holden is a troubled student, who is most of the time depressed. The book starts out with him somewhere like a medical center for depression and his health. Holden lives in New York. He starts out telling you about his brother D.B. who is a writer and lives in Hollywood. He then goes on to tell you how it all started. He has gotten kicked out by many schools, and his latest school, Pencey, is no different. The only subject he does well in is English. Everything else he does not care for. He is supposed to leave wednesday, but it is saturday. He has just gotten back from a fencing game which his team had to forfeit, because Holden forget the foils. His neighbor in their dorms, Ackley, keeps bothering him. Ackley does not take care of his hygiene and hates almost everybody except Holden. But Holden's roommate, Stradlater, comes in, causing Ackley to leave. Stradlater has a date with Jane, a fri end of Holden's. Stradlater gets ready then leaves Holden. Holden, Ackley, and another boy go out to eat, but none of them want to go to the movies, because Ackley and the other boy have already seen it. Holden does not care, because he hates movies. They go back to their dorms. Ackley goes to bed, and Holden just stares out the window. Stradlater comes in soon, and Holden asks him about his date. Stradlater will not say much which freaks out Holden. Holden and Stradlater then get into a fight and Stradlater beats him up. Holden then decides to leave early. His grandma has given him a whole bunch of money, so he goes to a cheap hotel. He leaves the hotel to go to a club, because he cannot sleep. He drinks a bit then goes to another club where he meets ... ...oo crowded, he leaves. He decides to bum his away across the U.S., so he wants to say goodbye to Phoebe. Phoebe is at school so he leaves a note for her with a secretary. It comes time for Phoebe to meet him but she does not. It takes her another hour to come. She comes with a big suitcase, and it confuses him. She wants to come with him. He gets mad at her, and checks the suitcase into a nearby locker security place. He lets her skip school even though she is mad at him. They go to the zoo, and after a while, she becomes no longer mad at him. He then takes her to the carousel where she rides it. He promises her he will not leave. He has been feeling sick. He goes home and gets sick, so his parents book him into the medical place. Then he says that is all he will tell you. He said to never start talking about people because you will start to miss them. Then it ends.

Charlie Don’t Surf: The Clash Protest Imperialism Essay -- Political P

By definition, imperialism is extending a country’s power and influence through diplomacy or military force. That ideology is best exemplified by the Vietnam War because the United States invaded North Vietnam to prevent the dissemination of Communism into South Vietnam, which is ultimately an attempt at exuding power and influence by using military force. The Clash recognized the homogeneity between the American imperialism of the Vietnam war and the forced Westernization of the non-Western world, particularly third world nations; thusly, the band chose the Vietnam War as a backdrop for â€Å"Charlie Don’t Surf† because of it’s relevance to American culture at the time. The Clash released the album Sandinista! in 1980; this album is home to the highly overlooked song â€Å"Charlie Don’t Surf.† The intent of this paper is to analyze the song â€Å"Charlie Don’t Surf† and examine it’s use of historical and cultural compone nts to protest imperialism forced upon third world countries by the United States. This paper will specifically analyze The Clash’s emergence from a tumultuous political climate as well as the decision to title the album Sandinista!. Musical composition and lyrical structure aids in demonstrating the protest of imperialism upon multiple levels and distinguishes the link between the â€Å"Charlie Don’t Surf† and a similar scene in the film Apocalypse Now. Emerging from England’s punk rock scene in 1977, The Clash morphed from traditional punk beginnings into the new wave movement. Described as â€Å"a more genuine, radical, proletarian,† sector of the punk genre, it was evident the band was destined to transcend musical boundaries.1 The Clash’s trademark idiosyncrasy is their layering of cultural remarks with historical relevancy througho... ...rus of â€Å"Charlie Don’t Surf† in the car, or helicopter, does not provide the background knowledge of the songs origins. In a way, without paying attention to the song, it mocks the ability to lose people into the music. Works Cited 1 Moore, Allan F. "Punk Rock." In Grove Music Online: Oxford Music Online.2 Browning, Boo. "The Clash: Another Flash of Lightning." The Washington Post, 1981.3 "The Clash Official Site." http://www.theclash.com/#/about/.4 Cowley, Jason. "The 1980s: 'England Was Convulsed by a Social and Political Revoltion'." Guardian, 2009.5 Ibrahim, Youssef M. "Britain's Economy Is Worsening Despite Mrs. Thatcher's Policies." The New York Times, 1980, 1.6 "Augusto Ceasar Sandino." Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition: 1.7 The Clash. "Charlie Don't Surf." Sandinista! 1980. CD.8 Coppola, Francis Ford. "Apocalypse Now." 153 min, 1979.

Concept and Nature Essay

1. Introduction Chapter 1. Concept- a notion or statement of an idea 2. 1 A concept is a fundamental category of existence. 2. 2 Ð ¡oncepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. 2. 3 A concept is a common feature or characteristic 2. 4 The notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept 1. A general idea derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences. 2. Something formed in the mind; a thought or notion. See Synonyms at idea. 3. A scheme; a plan: â€Å"began searching for an agency to handle a new restaurant concept†(ADWEEK). 1. an idea, esp an abstract idea the concepts of biology 2. (Philosophy) Philosophy a general idea or notion that corresponds to some class of entities and that consists of the characteristic or essential features of the class 3. (Philosophy) Philosophy a. the conjunction of all the characteristic features of something b. a theoretical construct within some theory c. a directly intuited object of thought d. the meaning of a predicate 4. (Engineering / Automotive Engineering) (modifier) (of a product, esp a car) created as an exercise to demonstrate the technical skills and imagination of the designers, and not intended for mass production or sale [from Latin conceptum something received or conceived, from concipere to take in, conceive] A notion or statement of an idea, expressing how something might be done or accomplished, that may lead to an accepted procedure. concept noun idea, view, image, theory, impression, notion, conception, hypothesis, abstraction,conceptualization She added that the concept of arranged marriages is misunderstood in the west. World English Dictionary concept (? k? ns? pt) | | — n| 1. | idea, especially an abstract idea: the concepts of biology| 2. | philosophy a general idea or notion that corresponds to some classof entities and hat consists of the characteristic or essentialfeatures of the class| 3. | . philosophy| | a. the conjunction of all the characteristic features of something| | b. a theoretical construct within some theory| | c. a directly intuited object of thought| | d. the meaning of a predicate| 4.| ( modifier ) (of a product, esp a car) created as an exercise todemonstrate the technical skills and imagination of the designers,and not intended for mass production or sale| | [C16: from Latin conceptum something received or conceived, fromconcipere to take in, conceive ] A. In general usage the term mainly denotes ‘idea’ or ‘notion’. It is envisaged as an abstract or psychological thing presupposing conscious minds which at least potentially ‘have’ the concept, i. e. , understand it, operate with it, apply it, etc. In philosophy and the social sciences (and other sciences too) concepts enter as (a) the most general tools of inquiry as such and as (b) the content or object of some specific inquiries, notably in comparative studies. What follows refers principally to (a) rather than (b). The nature of concepts, and their relation to the things ‘of which they are the concepts’, and to the minds which use or contemplate them, are among the most hotly disputed subject in philosophy. The present definition is not intended to prejudge or settle any of these issues, even if limitations of space make it appear to do so. B. Defined as an aspect of thought, a concept is a kind of unit in terms of which one thinks; a unit smaller than a judgement, proposition, or theory, but one which necessarily enters into these. In an assertion, something is predicated of a concept, and the predicate itself can generally be re-described as a concept. At the same time, however, the concept is by no means an ultimate or indivisible unit, for concepts can be augmented or diminished by addition or subtraction of some feature. (For instance, one may say that someone’s concept of social class does, or fails to, include the notion of differences in material rewards. ) Moreover, while concepts occur within assertions or theories and are thus distinct from them, a proposition or theory or thesis as a whole can in turn be referred to as a further concept. For instance, R. Firth writes that ‘some of Dr. Leach’s concepts are of a special order†¦I refer to his thesis that seeking for power is the basis of social choice’ (Foreword to E. R. Leach, Political Systems of Highland Burma, London: G. Bell, 1954, p. vii). C. Concepts correspond to or ‘are the meaning of’ all meaningful words, with certain qualifications: (a) only one concept corresponds to two or more words with the same meaning; (b) there is a tendency to speak of concepts only with regard to words which do, or at least can, refer either to something that can exist or be imagined or to an operation that can be performed, and not in connection with words whose role is grammatical rather than designative (for instance, one may speak of the concept of sovereignty, of infinity, of addition, but not of the concept of ‘and’ – though one must add that the drawing of the lines beetween these kinds of meaning is difficult, unsettled, and controversial part of philosophy: (c) there is a tendency to speak of concepts in connection with general rather than singular terms (one is unlikely to speak of a ‘concpet of John’ or of a ‘concpet of London’; in those cases the term ‘conception’ is more likely to be used. There are, however, exceptions, e. g. , ‘the concept of God’). The fact that concepts may be seen as the meanings of terms should not lead one to suppose that concepts are in some narrow sense linguistic entities: although concepts may be defined in terms of the rules governing the use of the words said to designate them, those rules determine (a) what things in the world are classed together (as ‘falling’ under the same concept’), (b) what features are grouped together (as ‘being various characteristics of the same thing’), (c) what operations of measurement, classification, discrimination, etc. , are performed by the man ‘using the concept’, and so on. D. Discussions of concepts in the social sciences tend to be a matter of the choice of terms and, more importantly, of their definitions. One may talk both of discovering and of inventing concepts; also of changing and developing concepts. In as far as given theories require certain concepts, and in as far as concepts can be said to incorporate theories, there is no sharp line between choice of theories and choice of concepts. Nevertheless, whole theories are thought of primarily as true or false, concepts are more naturally described as applicable or inapplicable, valid or invalid, useful or useless. Taken from A Dictionary of the Social Sciences eds. J. Gould and W. Kolb, Free Press, 1964. Concept From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In metaphysics, and especially ontology, a concept is a fundamental category of existence. In contemporary philosophy, there are at least three prevailing ways to understand what a concept is:[1] Concepts as mental representations, where concepts are entities that exist in the brain. Concepts as abilities, where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitive agents. Concepts as abstract objects, where objects are the constituents of propositions that mediate between thought, language, and referents. Concepts were born out of the rejection of some or all of the classical theory,[4] it seems appropriate to give an account of what might be wrong with this theory. In the 20th century, philosophers such as Rosch and Wittgenstein argued against the classical theory. There are six primary arguments[4] summarized as follows: It seems that there simply are no definitions – especially those based in sensory primitive concepts. [4] It seems as though there can be cases where our ignorance or error about a class means that we either don’t know the definition of a concept, or have incorrect notions about what a definition of a particular concept might entail. [4] Quine’s argument against analyticity in Two Dogmas of Empiricism also holds as an argument against definitions. [4] Some concepts have fuzzy membership. There are items for which it is vague whether or not they fall into (or out of) a particular referent class. This is not possible in the classical theory as everything has equal and full membership. [4] Rosch found typicality effects which cannot be explained by the classical theory of concepts, these sparked the prototype theory. [4] See below. Psychological experiments show no evidence for our using concepts as strict definitions. [4] Prototype theory Main article: Prototype theory Prototype theory came out of problems with the classical view of conceptual structure. [1] Prototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess, rather than must possess. [4] Wittgenstein, Rosch, Mervis, Berlin, Anglin and Posner are a few of the key proponents and creators of this theory. [4][5] Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as family resemblances. There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership, a dog can still be a dog with only three legs. [3] This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects. [3] Participants willingly and consistently rate objects in categories like ‘vegetable’ or ‘furniture’ as more or less typical of that class. [3][5] It seems that our categories are fuzzy psychologically, and so this structure has explanatory power. [3] We can judge an item’s membership to the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member – the most central member of the concept. If it is similar enough in the relevant ways, it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities. [3] Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category. [3] Theory-theory Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further. [3] This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing. [1] Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us. [3] In this sense, concepts’ structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. [4] How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory. [4] This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as a fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is). [4] When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don’t in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. In this sense, the Theory-Theory of concepts is responding to some of the issues of prototype theory and classic theory. [4] Issues in concept theory A priori concepts Main articles: A priori and a posteriori and Category (Kant) Kant declared that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind itself. He called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things in general, not of a particular thing. According to Kant, there are 12 categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that one predicate which is common to multiple empirical concepts. In order to explain how an a priori concept can relate to individual phenomena, in a manner analogous to an a posteriori concept, Kant employed the technical concept of the schema. Immanuel Kant held that the account of the concept as an abstraction of experience is only partly correct. He called those concepts that result from abstraction â€Å"a posteriori concepts† (meaning concepts that arise out of experience). An empirical or an a posteriori concept is a general representation (Vorstellung) or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects (Logic, I, 1. ,  §1, Note 1) A concept is a common feature or characteristic. Kant investigated the way that empirical a posteriori concepts are created. The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generated as to their form are: comparison, i. e. , the likening of mental images to one another in relation to the unity of consciousness; reflection, i. e. , the going back over different mental images, how they can be comprehended in one consciousness; and finally abstraction or the segregation of everything else by which the mental images differ †¦ In order to make our mental images into concepts, one must thus be able to compare, reflect, and abstract, for these three logical operations of the understanding are essential and general conditions of generating any concept whatever. For example, I see a fir, a willow, and a linden. In firstly comparing these objects, I notice that they are different from one another in respect of trunk, branches, leaves, and the like; further, however, I reflect only on what they have in common, the trunk, the branches, the leaves themselves, and abstract from their size, shape, and so forth; thus I gain a concept of a tree. Embodied content Main article: Embodied cognition In cognitive linguistics, abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience. The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping, in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995; see conceptual blending). A common class of blends are metaphors. This theory contrasts with the rationalist view that concepts are perceptions (or recollections, in Plato’s term) of an independently existing world of ideas, in that it denies the existence of any such realm. It also contrasts with the empiricist view that concepts are abstract generalizations of individual experiences, because the contingent and bodily experience is preserved in a concept, and not abstracted away. While the perspective is compatible with Jamesian pragmatism, the notion of the transformation of embodied concepts through structural mapping makes a distinct contribution to the problem of concept formation. [citation needed] Ontology Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world. In this way, universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say this form of realism was tied deeply with Plato’s ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt Godel as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from the phenomenological accounts. Gottlob Frege, founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept, and Frege regards senses as the linguistic representations of states of affairs in the world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status (Morgolis:7) According to Carl Benjamin Boyer, in the introduction to his The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development, concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the derivative and the integral are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious limits in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained. Etymology The term â€Å"concept† is traced back to 1554–60 (Latin conceptum – â€Å"something conceived†), but what is today termed â€Å"the classical theory of concepts† is the theory of Aristotle on the definition of terms. [citation needed] The meaning of â€Å"concept† is explored in mainstream information science, cognitive science, metaphysics, and philosophy of mind. In computer and information science contexts, especially, the term ‘concept’ is often used in unclear or inconsistent ways. When writing on the idea of nature as both stable in meaning and of the exchangeability of nature for other conceptualizations in written works, one should probably define nature in a definite way as to allow for comparisons in meaning. When seeking to define nature, whether it be of a human sort or any other, one must consider the parts to fully understand the whole. Everything must have a nature. If nothing had a nature, would that mean nature as we think of it would cease to exists? Or would we have another name for it? When seeking to define â€Å"nature†, there are a few routes to consider. Does a bear have a personality or a nature? Or both? When a bear frolics and plays, is that personality or nature? When it hibernates, is that personality or nature? For the sake of this argument, we shall say that when a bear happens to be frolicking and playing, he is doing so in a certain style, or way that is unique to that bear that sets him apart from his fellows, but not so much so that it alienates him from all bears. From there, we will assume this is because its personality allows it to. When it hibernates, it is because nature forces it to. Nature therefore is uniform; it has no uniqueness within bear kind. So establishing that a bear has a personality and a nature, what does this mean for criticism? Often in our readings we see references to nature, such as Mother Nature, human nature, the nature of plays and poetry, and so on and so forth. The question then, is what does a critic refer to when he says â€Å"nature†? Is he referring to hibernation? Or has he meant that nature is all-encompassing, referring to all actions of the bear as nature? As we have defined an instance of personality and nature within the inner workings of the bear, likewise must be done within the workings of criticism. In An Essay of Dramatic Poesy John Dryden states that a play â€Å"ought to be, a just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions and humors, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject; for the delight and instruction of mankind. † When he mentions â€Å"human nature† here, he is referring to many things at once. He is connecting the emotions one feels (passion and humors), that could easily be said to be part of an individual’s personality, as well as the commonality we all share in that there are no unique emotions to any one person. No one person has only felt happiness their whole life, nor has anyone not experience happiness at all. Dryden’s mention of â€Å"the changes of fortune† requires the alteration of the definition of â€Å"nature† we have thus far defined. When considering the bear, we didn’t count events in the bear’s life as part of his nature or personality. One can, however, predict what the bear will do in a life-changing event based on what we know of his nature. When it beings to get colder, a bear, as mandated by his bear nature, will forage for food to prepare for hibernation. When winter comes he will find a cave and hibernate. So when Dryden says â€Å"the change of fortune to which it is subject,† it can be assumed he means that human nature will react in a certain and specific and mostly predictable way to changes in the fictional character’s life. This means we can add an element of predictability and stability of actions to the definition of nature, with any variation given to personality. Dryden then turns to the notion of imitation. He speaks of imitating the ancient Greeks, who were imitators of nature. He speaketh: â€Å"Those Ancients have been faithful imitators and wise observers of that nature which is so torn and ill represented in our plays[. ]† This statement leads us to believe that nature is something to be observed and imitated. Therefore if one wanted to correctly portray a day in the life of our bear, he would watch the bear play, fish, sleep, and ect. The artist would then consider all of this as the bear’s nature, and imitate it on the stage or on paper in a story. The same process is therefore used when seeking to observe human nature. The poet, the playwright, the artist and novelist must be vigilant, claims Dryden, when observing so that when it is time to imitate, he can do so accurately. Aristotle, of the aforementioned Ancients, also discussed at great length the importance of the imitation of nature in art in his essay Poetics . Aristotlestates: Speaking generally, the origin of the art of poetry is to be found in two natural causes. For the process of imitation is natural to mankind from childhood on: Man is differentiated from other animals because he is the most imitative of them, and he learns his first lessons through imitation, and we observe that all men find pleasure in imitations. Imitation is considered here by Aristotle to be natural to mankind, even being so bold as to claim only humans learn from imitation. This natural tendency to imitate therefore leads us to find pleasure in observing imitations as well the act of imitation itself. Aristotle then incorporates â€Å"imitation† as a part of human nature, meaning that the action of imitation and the enjoyment of imitation is something all humans participate in, much in the way all bears hibernate in the winter. Aristotle continues by saying: Since imitation is given to us by nature[†¦]men, having been naturally endowed with these gifts from the beginning and then developing them gradually, for the most part, finally created the art of poetry from their early improvisations. Poetry then diverged in the directions of the natural dispositions of the poets. At this point, Aristotle’s notion of â€Å"nature† gets a little vague. First he states that imitation comes to mankind naturally. As he continues, however, he states that imitation is then developed, like a skill not an instinct. This concept evolves further to say that only the likes of poets become masters of imitation. Poets are unique in their ability to portray the observations of imitations they see. This uniqueness removes them from our definition of what is natural and applies to humans as a species, as Aristotle claims earlier. What Aristotle is applying here is another version of nature that is microsphere-ish to an individual, hence personality. Aristotle does not make this distinction what-so-ever. If imitation comes naturally to mankind as a whole, yet poetry only comes naturally to the disposition of poets, what exactly does that mean when defining nature? It means the terms â€Å"nature† and â€Å"naturally† in this passage needs footnotes. Perhaps when looking at this passage in terms of the way the words â€Å"nature† and â€Å"naturally† are used, Aristotle first uses it to refer to a universal characteristic shared by all humans: imitation. When refereeing to the poet, however, the definition changes slightly to refer to only poets, as though they are their own sub-species. An equivalent statement would be â€Å"All bears hibernate, but black bears hibernate the best. † Longinus also had an opinion of nature in his work On The Sublime. A lofty tone, says one, is innate, and does not come by teaching; nature is the only are that can compass it. Works of nature are, they think, made worse and altogether feebler when wizened by the rules of art. But I maintain that this will be found to be otherwise if it be observed that, while nature as a rule is free and independent in matters of passion and elevation, yet is she wont not to act at random and utterly without system. Further, nature is the original and vital underlying principle in all cases, but system can define limits and fitting seasons, and can also contribute the safest rules for use and practice. Longinus starts his argument out by saying what others have been saying: that the ability to write well comes from a persons’ natural talent; one that is born and not cultivated. Moreover, art is less sublime when confined to rules of art. Longinus argues this point, saying that if one truly observes an artist, they will find that while a natural born talent is a key principle, there is a system and structure to what is considered good art that is outside of nature’s control, which is contrary to the believe stated first. Longinus continues his argument by saying: This we may apply to diction, nature occupying the position of good fortune, art that of good counsel. Most important of all, we must remember that the very fact that there are some elements of expression which are in the hands of nature alone, can be learnt from no other sources than art. Longinus argues that ultimately nature is a catalyst for creation but does not play a role when judging if what has been created is worthy enough to be considered art. Yet in the next statement, he gives nature, the credit for the elements of expression that are observed and imitated in art to gain a better understanding of nature itself. When it comes to critiquing art, Dryden’s argument in An Essay of Dramatic Poesy is that in order for a work of art to be art, it must be the closet to actual nature. â€Å"Ancients have been faithful imitators and wise observers of that nature which is so torn and ill represented in our plays; they have handed down to us a perfect resemblance of her; which we, like ill copiers, neglecting to look on, have rendered monstrous, and disfigured. † When plays or writings don’t give an exact replication of nature, or even what is considered human nature, it loses value. It cannot be considered good art. The Greeks gave us examples of what good art is with their philosophies and ideas about nature and human nature. One advantage Dryden mentions his time period has over the Greeks is the advancement of science. He says: Is it not evident, in these last hundred years (when the study of philosophy has been the business of all the virtuosi in Christendom) that almost a new nature has been revealed to us? That more errors of the school have been detected, more useful experiments in philosophy have been made, more noble secrets in optics, medicine, anatomy, astronomy, discovered, than in all those credulous and doting ages from Aristotle to us? O true it is that nothing spreads more fast than science, when rightly and generally cultivated. As far as Dryden is concerned, that while many virtuous men have been focusing on philosophy, the times since Aristotle have changed. The invention of the microscope and the discovery of cells have altered how the natural world is viewed. There is more to everything in nature that meets the eye. He notes that worthy experiments in philosophy have been made, but that the rapid expanse of information generated by science has eclipsed those of philosophy. As there are no such references to science in regards to philosophy in Aristotle’s time, the philosopher of today must make his own way in regards to managing the way sciences has changed our view of nature. But what does science have to do with philosophy and art? The answer lies in the nature of art to reflect and imitate nature. Now that the secrets of optics, medicine, anatomy, and astronomy have been revealed, our human nature takes these secrets in. Philosophy now must contend and compromise with how these advancements fit into the human condition. The â€Å"new nature† must be negotiated with in terms of how it affects our lives. And of course science gives imitators a new genera in which to work. Painters can now paint the surgeon at work, perhaps teaching pupils. Once something becomes a natural experience, including that of science, it is to be imitated by poets. Nature, in its ever shifting meanings, does seem to have one consistent idea contributed to it, despite the technicalities. It can refer to the literal, organic substances that make up the vegetation, animals, and mankind in the world around us. It can also mean the behavior exhibited by said organic beings, such as the hibernation of bears. It has also been used to describe the emotions and other commonalties experienced by humans as a whole. Aristotle and Dryden have made it clear that within mankind there are certain characteristics attributed by nature, such as the observation and imitation of that which is around us. Simply put, it is in our nature to imitate nature. However, this definition of nature is refined when it comes under the consideration of art. While all of mankind takes delight in imitation, nature has endowed the artist, like say the poet, with a more natural and superior sense of imitation. When it comes to critiquing art of any sort, knowledge and a developed set of skills replaces nature according to Longinus. The act of imitating and creating may have natural causes, but the ability to ascribe worth to these creations can only come from a refined sense of what is makes good art, something that is not obtained from nature. In Dryden’s opinion, only the closest of imitations of nature are art. He also relies on the philosophy and insight into human nature of the ancient Greeks to guide what is valuable when it comes to art. Dryden makes the effort to include science in his argument by stating that science has discovered a â€Å"new nature† that will be observed and imitated and philosophized that the Greeks had no knowledge of. Nature, therefore, is still evolving, as will our concept of the many definitions of Nature. The idea of nature is one of the most widely employed in philosophy, and by the same token one of the most ill-defined. Authors such as Aristotle and Descartes relied on the concept of nature to explain the fundamental tenets of their views, without ever attempting to define the concept. Even in contemporary philosophy, the idea is oftentimes employed, in different forms. So, what is nature? Nature and the Essence of a Thing The philosophical tradition that traces back to Aristotle employs the idea of nature to explain that which defines the essence of a thing. One of the most fundamental metaphysical concepts, the essence indicates those properties that define what a thing is. The essence of water, for instance, will be its molecular structure, the essence of a species, its ancestral history; the essence of a human, its self-consciousness or its soul. Within the Aristotelian traditions, hence, to act in accordance with nature means to take into account the real definition of each thing when dealing with it. The Natural World At times the idea of nature is instead used to refer to anything that exists in the universe as part of the physical world. In this sense, the idea embraces anything that falls under the study of the natural sciences, from physics to biology to environmental studies. Natural vs. Artificial â€Å"Natural† is often used also to refer to a process which occurs spontaneously as opposed to one that occurs as the result of the deliberation of a being. Thus, a plant grows naturally when its growth was not planned by a rational agent; it grows otherwise artificially. An apple, would hence be an artificial product, under this understanding of the idea of nature, although most would agree that an apple is a product of nature (that is, a part of the natural world, that which is studied by natural scientists). Nature vs. Nurture Related to the spontaneity vs. artificiality divide is the idea of nature as opposed to nurture.